Category Archives: Equine & Canine Osteopathy

Well, here I am again, going into my thoughts about Osteopathy and putting them down in writing. Last time in the “Musings of an Osteopath” series, I discussed my introduction to Osteopathy and a little about the industry and how it progressed.

This time I want to talk about what it’s actually like at the “coal face”. If you are reading this, you might be interested in becoming an Animal Osteopathic Practitioner, or perhaps you already are one and just seeking a bit of opinion. Either way, I can only tell you about my experiences and perhaps a little of those I know well. Spoiler alert… It’s a great job!

So, an average day in the life of an Animal Osteopathic Practitioner will depend on the individual’s client list and areas covered. Some people may work in more urban areas, and others may be in the countryside. Some practitioners may work predominantly with horses, while others prefer to work mostly with dogs or small animals.

The joy of a career in Animal Osteopathy is that it can take you in a variety of directions and is flexible enough to accommodate personal preferences. Of course, some practitioners may split their time between practice and another income stream. Many practitioners of Animal Osteopathy are also qualified trainers, saddlers, Vets, or may maintain work part-time in a completely different industry.

My Average Day as an Animal Osteopath

For me personally, I have a deep love for horses and came into Osteopathy from a previous career in riding instruction and horse training. Therefore, my career has been focused on the treatment of horses, although I do still treat a few canine patients too.

I also work for the London College of Animal Osteopathy, so I split my time between that and clinical practice. Education is another interesting area of work that may open up when one qualifies. I previously taught Human Osteopathy in University after I trained as a Human Osteopath, so the transition into work for an Animal Osteopathy college was smooth.

First thing after I’ve had some light breakfast is to check my diary for the locations I am visiting that day. Usually, the planning of bookings is such that my locations are close to one another, although that might not always be possible. Something to remember when you choose to specialise in equine treatment is that there will be a lot of driving involved.

I like to keep my radius local, and then I will charge an extra fee on top if I have to travel outside that radius. I like to check online for any traffic problems such as roadworks, closures, or accidents so I can avoid them and alert my clients if there are going to be any delays.

I have a small car as this costs less on fuel and other bills, but it does have a capacity for carrying my equipment and necessities. I think that it’s good practice to keep your equipment in a box or bag within the car; it just looks more professional and means you can remove it from the car when not working.

I don’t provide any electrotherapies or other adjuncts that require machines or heavy equipment, but I do have a set of things I like to keep with me. These are:

• Antibacterial handwash
• Towels (clean!)
• Alcohol hand steriliser
• Spare jacket and or top (depending on the season)
• Spare boots for wet or muddy locations
• Spare socks – in case I get wet
• A bottle of water for hand washing
• A bottle of water for drinking (not to be confused with the hand-washing bottle!)
• Cereal bar or snack
• Long lead rope – You would be surprised how many people don’t have safe lead ropes.
• First aid kit – for people
• Note pad – separate from case notes
• Spare pens
• And of course, your case history notes.

To be professionally compliant, it is a good idea to have a lock box in which you keep the case notes for your clients within your car. This ensures privacy and legal compliance. These can be easily purchased from stationery stores and can have alphabetical compartments in them.

Once I have made sure I have everything in my car, I will make my way to my first location. I always drive carefully onto the property and park so as not to inconvenience any other people there.

I actually find a lot of places that will offer you to park in pride of place near the stables or barn. It’s always good to remember that although you are being hired for your services and knowledge, you must remain humble and walk and talk with respect. My clients often keep an eye out for me arriving and will come out to meet me once they see my car pulling up.

Something I really love about the job is the social aspect of it, we often talk about all sorts when I first turn up and there is much to be gained professionally by being open to pleasant conversation. People really begin to trust you and enjoy your visits when you spend the time to communicate well and form rapport.

I realise that some people want to get into working with animals because they are not keen on people but remember that with every animal comes an owner or keeper so we deal with people a lot too. However, it’s important to remember that you will attract the people to you who are “your people” by simply being who you are, so you should find yourself working with people that suit your vibe.

Of course you are at that location to do a job and be professional but I still find myself time at each visit to enjoy the moment of where I am and what I’m doing. I find that maintaining this gratitude and mindfulness throughout the work day (and all the time really) is both self healing and makes you a better practitioner.

By being “in the moment” you are going to fully absorb all the information that the owner and animal provide you and perform your palpation and treatment much more efficiently.

First visit done, it’s then important to ensure that your clinical forms and records are complete and signed before leaving. I know some people will wait until later to finalise their records but I find that this risks me forgetting something important.

I also include owner/keeper signature lines in my records to show I obtained informed consent prior to assessment and treatment and this shouldn’t really be back dated so I always like to get it all completed before I leave.

Forms all safely filed and locked away in my portable lock box, I head off to the next location. Oh, don’t forget to get paid! My clients usually pay me either by cash or card at each visit so I carry a card machine that I always ensure is charged up. Some people like to set up payment plans or invoice later and that is fine too, but make sure this is agreed and recorded.

One of the really pleasant things for me about being an Animal Osteopath is the places I get to visit. I drive through some very picturesque places and enjoying this part of the job is a good way to maintain that gratitude and mindfulness I was talking about.

I remember clearly only last year going to a lovely area in Surrey (where I live and do a lot of my work) but on route to the stables I was attending the owner called me to say she was running late and could I come 30 minutes later to give her a chance to get the stable duties done.

It was my last location that day and so it would not cause problems for anyone else and of course I said yes. I had a snack and a drink in my car (as listed earlier) so I stopped at a very nice countryside car park that looked out over National Trust land. I sat there just soaking up the views and recharging my metaphorical battery. Many people will get quiet times or breaks at work but few get to enjoy the peace and tranquility that came with this vista.

I’m talking about an “average day” but there really isn’t such a thing in therapeutics as each animal is unique and their presentation will be different every time. That is one of the most enjoyable things about the work as it is never boring or mundane. If one works with different species then this again adds variation to the work just as much as combining human work if qualified to do so.

Returning home, I will re-locate the completed patient forms and records to the filing cabinet and lock them appropriately away. I will complete any administration tasks I have from the day so nothing is carried over to the next day.

I like to give myself time at the end of the day to write any notes and reflections on the visits as this forms continued professional development and allows me to plan my continued training focus and areas for improvement.

All this note taking is recorded electronically so that I can create a portfolio of evidence of my development for annual review. Sometimes I might be attending a webinar or meeting for continued training too. All practitioners must understand that completing your course to practice is never the end, learning is continuous. The true master is one who knows they will always be a student.

Is There Anything Bad About a Job as an Equine Osteopath?

Honestly I wouldn’t change anything about the career of Animal Osteopathy. One thing that people need to be aware of though is that it can be physically demanding. The manual practice of Osteopathy on people or animals requires a level of fitness and dexterity.

If one chooses to work with horses or other large animals then this can be even more intense. However, this is not a draw back, this is a positive in my book. I like the fact that my job motivates me to look after my own body. Many jobs require little to no physical activity and this leads to all kinds of health problems due to the sedentary lifestyle.

I see it all the time in my Human Osteopathy work. A physical job like Osteopathy puts you in touch with your own body and motivates you to work on your health, fitness and mobility.

This brings all sorts of other benefits to your life outside of work too. I recommend focussing on keeping your back healthy and your arms and wrists mobile and strong. I have a regular Yoga practice into which I integrate pilates and calisthenics and I find this combined with regular walking keeps me fit enough for the work.

Combining Work With Animal Osteopathy

Many people will come to train in Animal Osteopathy after working in another therapeutic discipline or from human therapy/Osteopathy. Animal work is such a great addition to human practice because it teaches you to read between the lines and pick up in non-verbal cues due to animal communication being so different.

I also find that comparative anatomy teaches me to palpate and visualise a variety of different structures which avoids me falling into the habit of assumption. It can be easy to assume a typical presentation of a certain anatomical location when working only with humans. The palpation of different animals and understanding alternative anatomy and biomechanics really engages your analytical skills and forces you to investigate deeper.

As the Animal Paraprofessional industry gets bigger and more recognised, there will be greater demand for tutors, assessors and mentors. When picking a training course, look for the high standards and experienced tutors who will develop you into a high level practitioner that could potentially step into the world of education if they wanted.

I have been working for the London College of Animal Osteopathy (LCAO) for some years now and I am excited by the developments we are making. I dedicate about 40% of my time to LCAO developing the courses, networking and working with validators and professional associations and creating new projects to further the profession. Personally, I feel that all practitioners should give back to their profession when they can as this forms a stronger industry with more recognition and reliability.

Conclusion 

So I think it’s pretty obvious that I love Animal Osteopathy and with good reason. No other career offers me the flexibility, freedom and fascination that this does. If you can take a career that makes you want to get up each day and head out to work then why wouldn’t you?

Yes, there is a lot of study and work to get the qualifications to practice and it’s not a job you can coast in because there are animals whose welfare depends on you. But everything you put into Animal Osteopathy gives you equal back. This industry is growing and now is an exciting time to become part of it. No course of training or career change should be taken lightly, but if you found what I was discussing appealing then you might just fit the role well.

An Overview of Common Canine Pathologies: Clinical Features, Treatment Approaches, and the Role of Osteopathy

Here, we explore prevalent canine pathologies, highlighting clinical signs, conventional treatment modalities, and the potential role of osteopathy in canine care. Emphasis is placed on the scope and limitations of osteopathic intervention within evidence-based veterinary frameworks.

Osteoarthritis (Degenerative Joint Disease)

Definition: Osteoarthritis (OA) is a progressive, non-inflammatory joint disease characterised by cartilage degradation, synovial membrane changes, and subchondral bone remodeling (Johnston, 1997).

Clinical Signs:

• Lameness, stiffness, particularly after rest
• Reluctance to exercise or jump
• Joint swelling or heat

Conventional Treatment:

• NSAIDs (e.g., carprofen)
• Disease-modifying osteoarthritis drugs (DMOADs)
• Weight management
• Physical rehabilitation

Osteopathy and OA:
Canine osteopathy can aid in reducing secondary muscular tension, enhancing joint range of motion, and improving lymphatic and vascular flow. However, osteopathy is not curative and should complement, not replace, veterinary treatment.

When osteopathy may not help: In cases of advanced OA with significant joint degradation, osteopathy has limited mechanical impact and may be contraindicated if pain is severe or if neurological deficits are present.

2. Intervertebral Disc Disease (IVDD)

Definition: IVDD is primarily a neurological condition characterised by the degeneration and/or herniation of the intervertebral discs, leading to compression of the spinal cord and/or nerve roots. It more commonly affects chondrodystrophic breeds and is typically classified into two types (Brisson, 2010).

Hansen Type I: Acute disc extrusion due to degeneration of the nucleus pulposus, commonly seen in younger chondrodystrophic breeds (e.g., Dachshunds).

Hansen Type II: Chronic disc protrusion due to annular fibrosus degeneration, more common in older, non-chondrodystrophic breeds (e.g., German Shepherds).

The severity of clinical signs ranges from mild pain to complete paralysis, depending on the location and extent of disc material impinging on the spinal cord (Jeffery et al., 2013).

Clinical Signs:

• Neck/back pain
• Ataxia or paresis
• Loss of bladder/bowel control
• Paralysis in severe cases

Conventional Treatment:

• Corticosteroids or NSAIDs
• Crate rest
• Surgery (hemilaminectomy)
• Rehabilitation

Osteopathy and IVDD:
Osteopathy is contraindicated in acute or severe disc extrusion due to the risk of worsening compression. However, in chronic or post-surgical stages, gentle osteopathic techniques may assist recovery by addressing compensatory musculoskeletal patterns.

Osteopathy should never be used as a first-line treatment in acute disc herniation without prior diagnostic imaging and a clear veterinary referral.

3. Hip Dysplasia

Definition: A hereditary condition where the hip joint is malformed, resulting in joint laxity and osteoarthritic changes (Smith et al., 1995).

Clinical Signs:

• Bunny hopping gait
• Difficulty rising
• Hindlimb lameness
• Pain on hip extension

Conventional Treatment:

• Surgical options (e.g., total hip replacement, femoral head ostectomy)
• Physiotherapy
• Hydrotherapy
• Anti-inflammatories

Osteopathy and Hip Dysplasia:
Osteopathy may offer adjunct support in managing compensatory strain patterns and improving quality of life, especially in mild-to-moderate cases. In severe cases, structural abnormalities limit the efficacy of manual therapy.

Limitations: Osteopathy cannot correct bony malformations; it is supportive rather than corrective.

4. Cruciate Ligament Disease

Definition: Cranial cruciate ligament (CCL) rupture is a leading cause of hindlimb lameness in dogs, akin to the ACL injury in humans (Wilke et al., 2006).

Clinical Signs:

• Sudden or chronic lameness
• Stifle joint swelling
• Positive cranial drawer sign

Conventional Treatment:

• Surgical intervention (e.g., TPLO, TTA)
• Rehabilitation therapy
• Weight management

Osteopathy and CCL Injuries:
Post-surgical or conservative management can benefit from osteopathy to support gait normalisation and reduce muscular compensation. Osteopathy should not be used in acute rupture without stabilisation.

Not suitable during acute instability: Any manual work on an unstable joint risks further damage and must be delayed until stability is achieved.

5. Spondylosis Deformans

Definition: A chronic spinal condition characterised by bony spur formation along vertebrae, often incidental but occasionally causing discomfort or reduced mobility (Morgan et al., 1989).

Clinical Signs:

• Stiffness in the spine
• Reluctance to jump
• Reduced flexibility

Conventional Treatment:

• Analgesics
• Anti-inflammatories
• Physiotherapy

Osteopathy and Spondylosis:
Osteopathy may help reduce muscular compensation and improve comfort. Care must be taken to avoid direct force over the affected vertebrae.

Caution: Overly aggressive manipulation could exacerbate bony irritation or lead to secondary complications in spinal stability.

6. Myofascial Pain Syndrome

Definition: A chronic pain condition involving hypersensitive trigger points within muscle and fascia (Sharkey, 2013).

Clinical Signs:

• Palpable taut bands or knots
• Muscle spasms
• Referred pain patterns
• Behavioral changes

Conventional Treatment:

• Trigger point therapy
• Stretching and massage
• Acupuncture
• Laser therapy
• NSAIDs
• Osteopathy and Myofascial Pain:
  Osteopathy is particularly effective here. Techniques such as myofascial release, balanced ligamentous tension, and strain-counterstrain can directly target dysfunctional muscle patterns.Osteopathy is often highly effective when integrated with other modalities and a clear diagnosis.

  Veterinary Oversight and Ethical Considerations

  While osteopathy can play a valuable role in canine care, it must operate within a veterinary led framework. Conditions involving:

  • Neurological compromise
  • Infectious disease
  • Neoplasia
  • Acute trauma

  …require immediate veterinary intervention and may contraindicate osteopathic treatment. Practitioners must work under veterinary referral and never assume a diagnostic role.

  Conclusion

  Canine osteopathy offers valuable adjunctive care for a range of musculoskeletal and myofascial conditions. However, its role must remain supportive and never substitute appropriate veterinary diagnostics or medical/surgical interventions. The key lies in integrative, collaborative care grounded in evidence and clinical reasoning.

  References

  Brisson, B. A. (2010). Intervertebral disc disease in dogs. Veterinary Clinics: Small Animal Practice, 40(5), 829–858. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2010.05.001

  Johnston, S. A. (1997). Osteoarthritis. Joint anatomy, physiology, and pathobiology. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 27(4), 699–723. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0195-5616(97)50073-3

  Morgan, J. P., Bahr, A., & Franti, C. E. (1989). Spondylosis deformans in the dog: A radiographic study of the incidence and development of spondylosis deformans in the dog. Veterinary Radiology & Ultrasound, 30(3), 133–138. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-8261.1989.tb00782.x

  Sharkey, M. (2013). The challenges of assessing osteoarthritis and musculoskeletal pain in dogs. Veterinary Medicine: Research and Reports, 4, 151–160. https://doi.org/10.2147/VMRR.S40849

  Smith, G. K., Gregor, T. P., Rhodes, W. H., Biery, D. N., & Lawler, D. F. (1995). Evaluation of risk factors for degenerative joint disease associated with hip dysplasia in dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 206(5), 642–647.

  Wilke, V. L., Conzemius, M. G., Besancon, M. F., Evans, R. B., Ritter, M. J., & Heiderscheit, B. C. (2006). Comparison of tibial plateau leveling osteotomy and tibial tuberosity advancement for cranial cruciate ligament rupture in dogs. Veterinary Surgery, 35(6), 486–494. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-950X.2006.00184.x

  Jeffery, N. D., Levine, J. M., Olby, N. J., & Stein, V. M. (2013). Intervertebral disc degeneration in dogs: Consequences, diagnosis, treatment, and future directions. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 27(6), 1318–1333. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.12183

Chris Bates  M.Ost, DipAO, EEBW, BHSAI

Let’s take a look at an often misunderstood condition affecting many horses worldwide, Equine Metabolic Syndrome or “EMS”. For horse owners and the professionals who care for and treat horses, understanding conditions such as EMS can enhance the horse’s welfare by ensuring that appropriate interventions are put into place.

It should be noted that Veterinary assessment and treatment/management of EMS is vital, and that other paraprofessionals should not be working independently of the attending Vet in the management of the affected horses. Always seek Veterinary advice for any of the symptoms described here.

The development of some conditions and their increased prevalence can be impacted by the modern living conditions of animals. While the conscientious owner may be eager to supply their horse with all their needs, some conditions may be exacerbated by the daily routines, feeding regime, and physical activity (or lack thereof).

It is essential to remember that the domesticated horse lives in a very different way from their wild counterparts, even when kept in more naturalistic environments with access to varied foraging (Coleby, 2013).

The development of the equine industry has led to a more “processed” lifestyle with all the hallmarks of human modern living issues, such as:

• Processed foods
• Daily routines interrupt natural rhythms
• Reduced movement and activity
• Altered socialisation
• Potentially increased stress
• Somatovisceral health impacts

While the longevity of horses and the treatments for life-threatening conditions certainly have improved, the factors affecting overall welfare and evolutionary health have been altered beyond what some equine systems can manage.

It would be naive to assume that these are the only factors in the development of metabolic conditions such as EMS, as there is a paucity of studies in relation to horse feed processing, for example, compared to farming livestock (Hill, 2007).

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What is Equine Metabolic Syndrome?

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As the name suggests, EMS is a “syndrome,” meaning it is essentially a combination of signs and symptoms that consistently occur together. This may seem vague in its explanation of what is happening in the individual and can make owners frustrated in their endeavours to manage their horses effectively. This being the case, some horses may not present all of the most obvious signs but still be affected.

EMS could be likened to Type 2 Diabetes in Humans, in that much of the symptomology is mirrored. Signs and symptoms include:

• Obesity – Both generalised or regional adiposity (Alone does not mean EMS)
• Insulin resistance – Basal Hyperinsulinemia or Insulin dysregulation
• Laminitis or a predisposition of laminitis – Without other causes such as inflammatory, infectious, or fracture.

Insulin resistance and either laminitis or a predisposition for it must be present for the EMS diagnosis (Morgan, Keen, and McGowan, 2015).

Due to the difficulty in case definition, there is a lack of epidemiological data on EMS prevalence. In the domesticated population of horses, obesity is a concern, with up to between 19% and 40% being affected (Morgan, Keen and McGowan, 2015).

Of course, obesity alone is not a definitive sign, as discussed above, but it poses a high-risk factor in the development of insulin resistance and the resulting laminitic issues. This would indicate that there is a high prevalence for at risk individuals, and that could potentially lead to higher case diagnoses if future studies are made.

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Equine Obesity and EMS

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Horses becoming overweight and obese is a rising concern, and prevalence is already high. According to Stephenson, Green, and Freeman (2011), many owners may be underestimating their horse’s body composition.

This would necessitate better public awareness and education about the health of their animals. Of course, exercise and activity levels are a crucial factor in the management of weight. There are more horses now being kept as companions and for non-athletic use (Rendle et al., 2018), meaning that this could add to the increased prevalence.

While excess body fat can cause a number of functional problems in general, there is evidence within human studies that elevated levels of inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor, IL1, and IL6 can play a role in the insulin resistance in obese individuals (Vick et al., 2007).

As in humans, obesity can be a direct result of inactivity (underactive lifestyle), poor diet and stress. Once a horse has reached a state of obesity, it can become uncomfortable to move effectively and impact negatively on the joints, feet and suspensory apparatus.

Excess body fat can reduce effective respiratory mechanics and lead to postural changes that create ongoing problems. It is easy to see how obesity in horses (or any animal) is a causative factor for a multitude of problems.

Owners in general only mean well in their care efforts and are often just misguided or confused. Horses living healthily have very different requirements to humans and it can sometimes be anthropomorphism that guides an owner’s decisions on care and feeding.

It is not uncommon to find owners over rugging horses because they themselves feel cold or feeding a certain treat or concentrate because they feel the horse “likes it”. The nature of horses’ ability to regulate their temperature is often underestimated as is the importance of understanding their nutritional needs.

The activity levels of a horse will depend upon the amount of owner-led exercise they receive (riding, driving, groundwork) and their access to grazing land. Horses that are stabled for longer periods of time consequently require a higher proportion of time spent in guided exercise.

Horses will engage in natural exercise given enough space to do so and this is even more apparent in those with adequate grazing companions as social activity often involves movement. As horses have evolved to be continually moving throughout their waking hours, restricting their ability to do so will impact their wellbeing over all and substitutions need to be made where necessary to support health.

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Insulin resistance In Horses

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Insulin is an endocrine hormone secreted by the pancreas and it regulates blood glucose levels by acting on the insulin receptors on cell membranes. These insulin receptors, when bonded with insulin, allow for glucose to enter the cell to either be used for energy production or stored as glycogen for later use.

There can be a number of causes to cells becoming insulin resistant. As mentioned earlier, elevated inflammatory cytokines (cellular signalers) can lead to insulin resistance, increased fat intake can also lead to this.

Whichever pathway the body has come to be resistant to insulin, it is usually some kind of disruption to the insulin receptor or the chain of enzyme activation within the cell that the receptor stimulates.

Once the cells have become insulin resistant, the amount of insulin needed to get glucose into the cells will be higher, while the processing of blood glucose becomes less. It is at this point that systemic signs and symptoms of EMS may become apparent. These could include:

• Increased thirst
• Increased urination
• Lethargy
• Muscle atrophy
• Increased hunger
• Frequent infections
• Increased sweating
• Infertility in mares

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Laminitis and EMS

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This often debilitating condition causes severe lameness and in the most far progressed cases can lead to euthanasia. The epidemiology of laminitis is still poorly understood (Wylie et al., 2011), however, it is clear that there are multiple factors that can lead to the condition including: endocrine, metabolic, traumatic and genetic.

The clinical signs and symptoms include:

• Stiff or shortened stride
• Reluctance to walk on hard surfaces
• Increased digital pulse
• Weight shifting
• Warm or hot hooves

And in the more severe cases:

• Hoof wall changes
• Gapping of the hoof wall to the sole (white line)
• Laying down more often
• Hoof bruising visible
• Laminitic stance – Leaning back onto hind quarters in an effort to alleviate pressure on the forefeet

The laminae are protrusions of tissue that connect the hoof wall to the pedal bone and surrounding cartilages. They are an interwoven mix of the sensitive dermal fibers and the non-sensitive epidermal fibers. These fibers do have a shock absorbing function but when damaged will lose this ability. Traumatic laminitis can occur from impact damage or poor foot dynamics.

In EMS, the enzymes responsible for laminae remodelling are found in higher concentrations. These metalloproteinase enzymes (MMP-2 and MMP-9) are responsible for the normal remodelling of the laminae tissue to allow for growth of the hoof wall.

In higher concentrations, they lead to over active breakdown of the lamellar basal cells attachment to the basal membrane connective tissue of the distal phalanx (pedal bone) (Pollitt, 2004).

The breakdown of the connections between the hoof wall and the pedal bone then obviously allow for the bone to move and rotate within the hoof capsule. With the tensegrity structure of the laminae compromised, functions such as support, shock absorption and hoof wall development are all affected while pain receptors are stimulated.

Evidence seems to suggest that excess adiposity (obesity) leads to an increase in inflammatory cytokines (Ferrante, 2007). Obesity is linked to the increased number and activation of macrophages in adipose tissue further increasing the inflammatory cascades.

Adipose tissue expression of genes that encode for a number of inflammatory cytokines includes the metalloproteinases mentioned earlier. From a structural perspective, it is also worth mentioning that increased weight of the body will then further impact the weakened structures of the distal limb including the laminae that are damaged.

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Feeding and its EMS Connection

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When we prepare food for ourselves, it can be part of the process to consider what we enjoy eating and what tastes good. Unfortunately, as we see from the rising figures of obesity, diabetes and heart disease, it is not actually always doing us much good from a health perspective.

There are of course many evolutionary reasons why humans so easily fall into the habit of craving certain foods and choosing foods that provide energy storage; however, horses as grazing animals have very different dietary needs and evolutionary development.

Horses certainly can enjoy particular types of food but it is the human providing them that decides the quantity of food they receive. In the wild, a herd may come across a particular forage that is very palatable and easy to access but once the herd (important to remember multiple animals) has eaten it, they will move on and balance of intake is achieved (Frape, 2010).

When we feed in domesticated horse care, we must remember this variation of supply they would naturally be faced with. This should remind us to vary the concentrates and type of forage depending on their current health, weight, the time of year and their exercise demands.

Ratios of protein, carbohydrates, fibre and fats should be monitored depending on the above variables (Harris and Jansson, 2024). If owners fall into the habit of keeping a feed regime the same without adjusting for the variables, obesity can be one of the results.

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Exercise and activity

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Horses are movement machines and evolved to roam across large open spaces while grazing along the way. Their access to large open space will depend on where they are kept and what the quality of the land is like.

Some more competitive horses may be stabled more often as may some horses with health conditions and injuries that limit their movement capacity (Marlin and Nankervis, 2006). The most important principle to remember when caring for an EMS horse or trying to prevent it occurring, is that movement is medicine.

To ensure that the energy demand is sufficient so that excess fat storage does not occur is just one goal of equine exercise. Movement does not have to be excessive either. Much of the time wild equines spend “exercising” is simply walking from one region of grazing to another.

This longer sustained form of lower intensity exercise is often key in the management of excess weight gain. This lower intensity/longer duration exercise can be achieved with hacking out at walk and trot, longer schooling sessions focussing on the walk figures and even hand walking for horses who may not have sufficient health status or age to be riding.

Higher intensity exercise is usually reserved for horses that are sports competitors, working horses or have a special health requirement such as losing excess weight already gained. These should be planned and logged even informally to allow for the owner/rider/trainer to monitor progress and assess fitness levels.

While higher intensity exercise is very effective at weight management, it does increase the risk of injury, overuse strains, loss of vital electrolytes via sweating and can even lead to serious conditions like rhabdomyolysis (muscle breakdown).

The plan for increased intensity should consider the horses other health conditions, age and training level. It is essential for all exercise changes to be graduated and progressive so as to allow for physiological changes to occur and support the healthy functioning of the body.

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Diagnosis and Treatment of Equine Metabolic Syndrome

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I have touched on many of the symptoms of EMS above. Here is a compiled list of symptoms that indicate you should consider consulting with your equine veterinarian to evaluate if your horse has EMS

• Obesity, which can include a crusty neck, abnormal fat deposits and bulges
• Increased urination
• Increased thirst
• Lack of energy
• Low grade, sometimes unnoticed laminitis to more severe cases
• Struggling with weight loss
• Mare infertility

While owners can suspect their horse has EMS, diagnosis can only be made by a veterinarian. One of the main ways this is done is by blood tests taken at specific times, such as first thing in the morning before feeding to check insulin levels before it is affected by food.

According to the UC Davis Veterinary Medicine Center For Equine Health, “If the insulin concentration is above a certain level (>50 µU/mL), the horse is diagnosed with insulin dysregulation.” Other tests may also be carried out to further determine the horse’s status.

Treatments include changes to diet, such as low non-structural carbohydrate consumption, restricted grazing, and increased exercise (if the horse is capable), feed and hay analysis (UC Davis)

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Conclusion

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EMS is a condition that has the potential to grow if owner education is poor and incorrect feeding and exercise/movement regimes are used. In our future posts, I will discuss equine nutrition and fitness in more detail.

It is evident that excess body fat is a key factor in development of EMS and it is widely known that obesity is a risk factor for other health concerns too. The inflammatory effects of obesity are well documented, with inflammation being well researched in human models, it would advance equine science and care to invest more into the longer term effects of chronic inflammation in horses.

Learn more in depth detail of the pathologies that affect horses and how Osteopathy works to support better health by signing up to one of our diplomas. The London College of Animal Osteopathy provides quality education in animal health whether you are an aspiring professional, experienced practitioner or just want to improve your knowledge.

Bibliography:

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Coleby, P. (2013). Natural Horse Care : a practical guide. Sydney: Hachette Australia.

Ferrante, A.W. (2007). Obesity-induced inflammation: a metabolic dialogue in the language of inflammation. Journal of Internal Medicine, 262(4), pp.408–414. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2796.2007.01852.x.

Frank, N., Geor, R.J., Bailey, S.R., Durham, A.E. and Johnson, P.J. (2010). Equine Metabolic Syndrome. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 24(3), pp.467–475. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-1676.2010.0503.x.

Frape, D. (2010). Equine nutrition and feeding. Uk: Wiley-Blackwell.

Harris, P.A. and Jansson, A. (2024). Nutrition for the Equine Athlete: Nutrient Requirements and Key Principles in Ration Design. Elsevier eBooks, [online] pp.925–953. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-7020-8370-9.00041-2.

Hill, J. (2007). Impacts of nutritional technology on feeds offered to horses: A review of effects of processing on voluntary intake, digesta characteristics and feed utilisation. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 138(2), pp.92–117. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2007.06.018.

Marlin, D. and Nankervis, K.J. (2006). Equine exercise physiology. Oxford: Blackwell Science.

Morgan, R., Keen, J. and McGowan, C. (2015). Equine metabolic syndrome. Veterinary Record, [online] 177(7), pp.173–179. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.103226.

Pollitt, C.C. (2004). Equine laminitis. Clinical Techniques in Equine Practice, [online] 3(1), pp.34–44. doi:https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ctep.2004.07.003.

Rendle, D., McGregor Argo, C., Bowen, M., Carslake, H., German, A., Harris, P., Knowles, E., Menzies-Gow, N. and Morgan, R. (2018). Equine obesity: current perspectives. UK-Vet Equine, [online] 2(Sup5), pp.1–19. doi:https://doi.org/10.12968/ukve.2018.2.s2.3.

Stephenson, H.M., Green, M.J. and Freeman, S.L. (2011). Prevalence of obesity in a population of horses in the UK. Veterinary Record, 168(5), pp.131–131. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.c6281.

Vick, M.M., Adams, A.A., Murphy, B.A., Sessions, D.R., Horohov, D.W., Cook, R.F., Shelton, B.J. and Fitzgerald, B.P. (2007). Relationships among inflammatory cytokines, obesity, and insulin sensitivity in the horse1,2. Journal of Animal Science, 85(5), pp.1144–1155. doi:https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2006-673.

Wylie, C.E., Collins, S.N., Verheyen, K.L.P. and Richard Newton, J. (2011). Frequency of equine laminitis: A systematic review with quality appraisal of published evidence. The Veterinary Journal, 189(3), pp.248–256. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2011.04.014.

Young, A., Equine Metabolic Syndrome, UC Davis Veterinary Medicine Center For Equine Health. https://ceh.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/health-topics/equine-metabolic-syndrome

Osteopathy, a form of manual therapy focusing on the musculoskeletal system, has been increasingly applied in veterinary medicine to aid post-veterinary treatment recovery in animals. This approach emphasises the interrelationship between structure and function, aiming to restore mobility, alleviate pain, and enhance overall physiological function.

Understanding Osteopathy in Veterinary Medicine

Animal osteopathy is an integrated manual therapy founded on osteopathic principles that consider both intrinsic and extrinsic factors affecting an animal’s health. Practitioners evaluate various aspects, including the animal’s medical history, environment, and activities, to provide holistic care.

Osteopathic Techniques in Post-Veterinary Rehabilitation

In the context of post-veterinary treatment rehabilitation, osteopathic practitioners employ a variety of manual techniques tailored to the individual needs of the animal. These may include soft tissue manipulation, joint mobilisation, and myofascial release, all aimed at reducing pain, improving joint range of motion, and enhancing circulation. Such interventions can expedite recovery by addressing musculoskeletal imbalances and promoting optimal healing environments.

Integration with Conventional Rehabilitation Practices

Osteopathy complements traditional veterinary rehabilitation methods, such as physiotherapy and hydrotherapy. For instance, incorporating osteopathic techniques alongside exercises designed to improve balance and coordination can lead to more comprehensive recovery outcomes. This integrative approach ensures that all aspects of the animal’s health are addressed during the rehabilitation process.

Case Studies and Clinical Observations

Clinical evidence supporting the efficacy of osteopathy in post-veterinary treatment recovery for animals is emerging through various case studies. For instance, a case involving an equine patient demonstrated significant improvements following osteopathic intervention.

The horse had been experiencing joint and visceral restrictions, which were alleviated through targeted osteopathic treatments focusing on the stifle and hocks. After completing an eight-week rehabilitation program, assessments revealed no remaining restrictions, and the owner successfully resumed riding the horse after a year-long hiatus.

A notable canine case involves a patient that underwent osteopathic treatment as part of its rehabilitation program. The dog had experienced a musculoskeletal injury and was subjected to a tailored osteopathic regimen focusing on manual manipulations to restore structural balance and function. Over the course of the treatment, significant improvements were observed in the dog’s mobility, pain levels, and overall quality of life, suggesting that osteopathic techniques can play a vital role in enhancing recovery outcomes in canines. ​

These observations underscore the potential benefits of integrating osteopathic care into conventional veterinary rehabilitation protocols, offering a holistic approach to post-treatment recovery in canine patients.

Osteopathy offers a promising adjunct to conventional veterinary rehabilitation practices, particularly in musculoskeletal recovery following surgical and medical interventions. By integrating osteopathic techniques with established rehabilitation protocols, veterinary practitioners can provide holistic care that addresses the unique needs of each animal, potentially enhancing recovery outcomes and overall well-being.

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Resources

Animal Osteopathy Worldwide. (2024). Osteopathic treatment of animals in rehabilitation. https://animalosteopathyworldwide.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Osteopathic-Treatment-of-Animals-in-Rehabilitation-2.pdf

 

Animal Osteopathy Worldwide. (2024). Equine osteopathic case studies with Rachel Pechek & Kali Larson. https://animalosteopathyworldwide.com/equine-osteopathic-case-studies-with-rachel-pechek-kali-larson/

Animal Rehab Australia. (n.d.). Post-surgical rehabilitation | The Dog Osteopath. https://animal-rehab.com.au/services/post-surgical-rehabilitation/

The Canine Fitness Centre. (n.d.). Postoperative recovery for dogs. https://www.thecaninefitnesscentre.co.uk/post-surgery-recovery-for-dogs/

Vet Times. (n.d.). Postoperative pain management in companion animals: An update. https://www.vettimes.co.uk/app/uploads/wp-post-to-pdf-enhanced-cache/1/postoperative-pain-management-in-companion-animals-an-update.pdf

The Veterinary Nurse. (n.d.). Small animal post-operative orthopaedic rehabilitation. https://www.theveterinarynurse.com/content/clinical/small-animal-post-operative-orthopaedic-rehabilitation

Fascia: The Overlooked Key to Animal Mobility and Health

What is Fascia?

Fascia is a continuous, connective tissue network that surrounds, supports, and integrates every structure in the body, including muscles, bones, nerves, and organs. Once considered an inert wrapping, research now recognises fascia as a dynamic system essential for movement, proprioception, and overall health.

In animals, fascia plays a crucial role in biomechanical function, influencing movement efficiency, force transmission, and structural integrity. It is primarily composed of collagen and elastin fibers, providing both strength and flexibility. Additionally, fascia contains myofibroblasts, specialised cells that allow it to contract, influencing muscle tension and joint stability (Stecco et al., 2018).

The Role of Fascia in Animal Movement

Fascia is not just a passive structure – it actively contributes to motion by:

• Force Transmission: Fascia distributes mechanical forces across the body, reducing localised stress on muscles and joints. This function is especially important in high-performance animals like racehorses and agility dogs (Schleip et al., 2012).
• Elastic Energy Storage: Fascia acts like a spring by storing and releasing kinetic energy, which enhances movement efficiency (Wilke et al., 2018).
• Proprioception: Fascia is richly innervated with sensory receptors, providing essential feedback for body awareness and coordination (Stecco et al., 2011).

In quadrupeds, fascial integrity is essential for maintaining balance, posture, and gait. Dysfunction can lead to stiffness, asymmetry, and reduced performance.

Fascial Dysfunction and Its Effects

When fascia becomes restricted due to injury, overuse, or compensatory movement patterns, it can lead to:

• Reduced Range of Motion: Tightened fascia limits muscle function and joint mobility.
• Pain and Sensitivity: Fascial adhesions can compress nerves, causing discomfort (Bordoni & Myers, 2020).
• Compensatory Strain Patterns: Dysfunction in one area can lead to secondary issues elsewhere in the body.

Veterinary research highlights that myofascial trigger points (MTrPs) – localised areas of tightness in the fascia – are common in horses and dogs with chronic pain or musculoskeletal dysfunction (Shah & Gilliams, 2008). Addressing these restrictions through manual therapy can help restore function.

How Osteopathy Supports Fascial Health

Animal osteopaths may use manual techniques to restore fascial mobility and function, including:

• Myofascial Release (MFR): A gentle technique applying sustained pressure to reduce adhesions and improve fascial glide. Studies in human and veterinary medicine show MFR can enhance flexibility and reduce pain (Langevin et al., 2009).
• Craniosacral Therapy: A subtle approach targeting the fascia around the skull and spine to improve nervous system function. This technique is increasingly used in equine rehabilitation (MSD Veterinary Manual).
• Visceral Manipulation: Addressing fascial restrictions around internal organs, which can impact posture and movement.

By targeting fascial restrictions, osteopathy helps improve movement efficiency, reduce pain, and enhance overall well-being.

Fascia is a vital yet often overlooked component of animal health and mobility. Understanding its role allows practitioners to refine their therapeutic approaches, ensuring optimal movement and function. As research into fascia evolves, so too will its applications in osteopathic and rehabilitative care for animals.

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Resources:

1. Stecco, C., Schleip, R., Yucesoy, C. A., & Gabbiani, G. (2018). The role of fascia in musculoskeletal conditions. Current Pain and Headache Reports, 22(12), 1-10. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29499229/

2. Schleip, R., Jäger, H., & Klingler, W. (2012). What is ‘fascia’? A review of different nomenclatures and terminology. Journal of Bodywork & Movement Therapies, 16(4), 496–502. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1360859212000413

3. Wilke, J., Krause, F., Vogt, L., & Banzer, W. (2018). What is evidence-based about myofascial chains? A systematic review. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 99(6), 1238-1250. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30124301/

4. Stecco, C., Macchi, V., Porzionato, A., Duparc, F., & De Caro, R. (2011). The fascia: the forgotten structure. Italian Journal of Anatomy and Embryology, 116(3), 127-138. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21996516/

5. Bordoni, B., & Myers, T. (2020). Fascial nomenclature: Update on related disorders. Cureus, 12(4), e7613. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32292261/

6. Shah, J. P., & Gilliams, E. A. (2008). Uncovering the biochemical milieu of myofascial trigger points using in vivo microdialysis: An application of muscle pain concepts to myofascial pain syndrome. Journal of Bodywork & Movement Therapies, 12(4), 371-384. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18722360/

7. Langevin, H. M., Fox, J. R., Koptiuch, C., Badger, G. J., Greenan-Naumann, A. C., Bouffard, N. A., … & Henry, S. M. (2009). Reduced thoracolumbar fascia shear strain in human chronic low back pain. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders, 10, 151. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19060330/

8. MSD Veterinary Manual. (n.d.). Manual therapy in veterinary patients. https://www.msdvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition/integrative-complementary-and-alternative-veterinary-medicine/manual-therapy-in-veterinary-patients

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Veterinary medicine and canine osteopathy share a common goal: improving animal health and well-being. While veterinary medicine primarily focuses on diagnosing and treating diseases, osteopathy takes a holistic approach, emphasizing the interconnection between the musculoskeletal system and overall health. Rather than being alternatives, these disciplines can work synergistically to optimize canine health, enhance recovery, and improve quality of life.

The Principles of Canine Osteopathy

Canine osteopathy is rooted in the understanding that the body functions as a whole, where the structure and function of tissues are closely linked. Osteopathic practitioners use manual techniques to detect and correct restrictions in mobility, aiming to restore normal function. This approach not only benefits musculoskeletal issues but can also have a positive impact on the nervous, circulatory, and lymphatic systems.

How Osteopathy Supports Veterinary Care

Enhancing Recovery After Surgery and Injury

Post-surgical rehabilitation often focuses on pain management and restoring mobility. Osteopathic techniques, such as myofascial release and joint mobilization, can aid in reducing inflammation, improving circulation, and preventing compensatory strain patterns that may develop due to restricted movement. By integrating osteopathy with conventional post-operative care, recovery can be optimized, reducing healing time and improving patient outcomes.

Managing Chronic Pain and Musculoskeletal Disorders

Conditions like arthritis, hip dysplasia, and degenerative joint disease are common in dogs, particularly as they age. While veterinarians often prescribe medications such as NSAIDs to manage pain and inflammation, osteopathy provides a drug-free complementary approach that can help enhance the management of these conditions.

Gentle manipulations and soft tissue techniques can help joint mobility, reduce stiffness, and improve overall comfort, helping to minimize reliance on pharmaceutical interventions.

Supporting Neurological Rehabilitation

Dogs suffering from neurological conditions, such as intervertebral disc disease (IVDD) or nerve injuries, benefit from multimodal rehabilitation strategies. Osteopathic treatment can help address muscle imbalances, improve spinal alignment, and support neural function by enhancing proprioception and neuromuscular coordination.

Combined with veterinary-prescribed physiotherapy or hydrotherapy, osteopathy can contribute significantly to functional improvements.

Addressing Compensation Patterns and Secondary Issues

When a dog experiences an injury or undergoes surgery, they often develop compensatory movement patterns that can lead to secondary issues such as muscle strain or joint dysfunction.

Osteopathy helps to identify and address these patterns early, preventing further complications and promoting balanced movement. This is particularly beneficial for working dogs, sporting dogs, and those with previous injuries.

Improving Gastrointestinal and Systemic Health

Osteopathy is not limited to musculoskeletal concerns. Since the autonomic nervous system plays a key role in digestive function, osteopathic techniques that address the spine and diaphragm can help regulate gut motility and reduce tension that may contribute to digestive disturbances. This can be particularly useful for dogs with chronic gastrointestinal issues, in conjunction with veterinary dietary and medical interventions.

A Collaborative Approach for Optimal Canine Health

For optimal results, veterinary professionals and osteopaths should work together in a collaborative framework. Veterinary diagnosis provides essential information about a dog’s condition, while osteopathic assessment and treatment offer additional support for functional restoration. Open communication between veterinarians and osteopaths ensures that each patient receives a well-rounded, integrative approach tailored to their specific needs.

Canine osteopathy and veterinary medicine are not opposing fields but complementary disciplines that, when combined, enhance canine health and well-being. Through post-surgical rehabilitation, chronic pain management, neurological support, and addressing systemic imbalances, osteopathy serves as a valuable adjunct to conventional veterinary care. As awareness grows, fostering collaboration between these fields will continue to improve treatment outcomes and elevate the standard of care for canine patients.

 

Resources:

Cornell University, Riney Canine Health Center. (n.d.). Intervertebral disc disease. Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine. https://www.vet.cornell.edu/departments-centers-and-institutes/riney-canine-health-center/canine-health-information/intervertebral-disc-disease

MSD Veterinary Manual. (n.d.). Parts of the nervous system in dogs. https://www.msdvetmanual.com/dog-owners/brain-spinal-cord-and-nerve-disorders-of-dogs/parts-of-the-nervous-system-in-dogs#Neurons_v3205634

With any horse or human, for that matter, nutrition is an essential consideration when it comes to health management. It can be difficult for owners of horses to navigate the wide variety of opinions and advice on offer and this could potentially lead to horses receiving the wrong diet for their unique constitution.

Here my aim is to inform on the general principles of nutrition and investigate the current evidence. As with all advice and information found within articles, it is important to remember this is only generalized information and owners should always seek veterinary advice before making dietary changes for their animal.

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What is Nutrition?

Nutrition as a science is deep and practitioners study to degree level to practice and will further specialize in various areas of the science. In as plain a description as possible, nutrition is the combination of food, water, and supplementation to provide the living being with the essential reserves needed for healthy functioning.

Nutritionists will assess the unique case of each horse and address the various potential deficiencies with tailored plans and supplements. Nutrition is not just about the actual type and content of food being provided but also the timing and amount.

Domesticated horses will have a different diet to those in the wild. Wild equines will graze and browse on a variety of plant material and succulent forages containing proteins, water, lipids, and carbohydrates but much less starches than our domesticated horses (Frape, 2010).

While many will try to create as natural an intake of food as possible, the reality is that without hundreds of acres of land that is biodiverse and flourishing, this is not possible. The science of nutrition allows for the creation of foodstuffs that best provide the horse with the fuel, vitamins, and minerals that they have evolved to consume but with the convenience and availability that domestication necessitates.

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The Essentials of Equine Nutrition

So what do horses actually need in their diet? Horses are known as trickle feeders in that they eat at frequent intervals throughout the day. We do tend to provide horses with bulk meals at various times too but these will depend highly on the individual needs such as their activity, age, and health status.

The most important principle in equine nutrition is that they must have access to water and some kind of forage the majority of the time. Of course, at times the horse may, by participating actively in exercise and sports, would not be eating. There will also be occasions where food should be removed for the horse’s health and safety such as when recovering from anesthesia or sedation due to the risk of choking.

Secondly, the horse must receive the correct balance of macronutrients for their unique constitution. This means that there should be an adequate intake of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and fibre. The amounts will vary depending on the individual’s demands (Geor, Harris and Coenen, 2012).

Timing of the feeding is also important. When offering forage such as hay, haylage, and grass, eating is generally continuous in most cases and horses will self-regulate their intake when the forage is available.

However, when feeding hard feeds such as mixes, pellets, and soaked feed, they need to be spaced appropriately throughout the day. We must also consider that horses will naturally eat less during the night due to the fact they are diurnal (Melyni Worth, 2010). The horse’s digestive system can get overloaded with the high concentrate feeds and this can lead to problems such as colic.

The quality of food and supplements is vital. Due to the type of feeds we provide domesticated horses, it is not uncommon to find problems with storage or pests that have caused feed quality to be compromised.

Hay and other forage if not stored well can become wet leading to mold growth. Hard feeds should be stored where pests such as mice and rats cannot access them. Water should be clean and free of potential parasitic organisms.

We should also consider the quality of grazing. This can be through good grassland management and seasonal rotation, clearing droppings from fields to avoid increased parasite burdens, and removing toxic plants from fields such as ragwort or acorns. Finding a good feed supplier will often negate problems with quality.

Individuality is fundamental to nutrition study. Each animal will have their own intrinsic and extrinsic factors that affect the behavior around eating, physical ability to digest and absorb, and of course different physical activity demands.

Horses in older age will often develop dental issues as a result of the natural eruption of their teeth and eventual loss of them. This will inhibit their ability to masticate (chew) longer forage such as hay and will necessitate forage replacement meals high in fibre.

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Equine Macronutrients & Micronutrients

To understand the way in which feeds affect our horses, we need to understand the components that makeup food. Macronutrients are the components that bodies need in larger quantities in order to create and store energy and repair.

These are the fats, proteins, carbohydrates, fibre, and water we provide in a variety of foods and forage. These compounds are made up of smaller components and are broken down into those components in digestion to be used or stored.

Micronutrients are the vitamins and minerals that we need in smaller quantities but are essential for healthy functioning. These include B vitamins, Fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K, minerals such as zinc, iron, and magnesium, and many others.

Micronutrients are essential in processes such as facilitating the production of DNA, producing enzymes and hormones, and allowing nerve function. The body can synthesize some of these but some are known as “essential” meaning that the body needs to gain them through nutrition and supplementation.

It can help to understand the uses if you think of the macronutrients as the body’s raw materials and the micronutrients as the many tools and helpers that allow us to utilise them. The ratios of different macronutrients and micronutrients are important to consider when feeding and even in an otherwise healthy animal, a continuous lack of a certain nutrient can lead to deficiency and symptoms will become apparent.

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Variations in Horse Nutrition Requirements

A horse’s requirements for certain nutrients will vary depending on their age, health status, activity/sports, pregnancy, and even behaviour. In early life, the horse will be dedicating a lot of vital resources to growth and development, this will necessitate a higher proportion of protein in their diet than their adult counterparts.

For similar reasons, a lactating or pregnant mare will also need higher protein feed. Excessive sweating can seriously deplete electrolytes such as sodium and potassium (micronutrients) which play essential roles in fluid transfer and nerve conduction and so these may need to be increased in horses with heavier workloads or at certain times of the year.

Many horse owners will increase the intake of fats in their horse’s feed during the winter months. This can be very useful to ensure they have the reserves to self-regulate their temperature in the cold. However, it can be tricky if the horse gains too much weight, and owners need to be aware of any conditions such as equine metabolic syndrome (similar to diabetes in humans) or laminitis and how these affect or are affected by weight gain.

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Types of Hores Feeds

It can be overwhelming at first when looking at all the available feeds and forage types as a horse owner. The key is to get some clear and educated information from a nutritionist and the feed producers.

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Forages

These are the high-fibre feeds that are lower in starches and provide the horse with the bulk of their diet. Horses have evolved to feed little and often so this type of food is essential.

Hay and haylage provide them with plenty of chewing. Horses can chew up to 18 hours of the day and if they do not have sufficient forage to chew on, this can cause stress by stopping them from performing natural chewing behaviour.

The slower breakdown of fibre in the hindgut also helps horses to regulate their temperature as this breakdown creates heat. Regular adequate access to forage also protects the horse from gastric ulceration by the continual flow of food and saliva into the digestive system.

Horses are continuously producing stomach acid and saliva acts as a pH buffer to reduce the risk of ulceration. This should be the largest component of the horse’s diet. Soaked feeds such as sugar beet also provide extra fibre at times of the year when sufficient grass may not be available. Feed companies also create high-fibre hard feeds in pellet and mix form.

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Concentrates

These are what some people refer to as “hard feed” or “grain”. These are cereal-based foods derived from oats, barley, and maize. Concentrates are much more energy-dense than forage and are very useful for providing the additional macronutrients a horse may need if they are in work, aging, developing, or needing to gain weight and condition.

Not all horses need concentrates and many horses, even in light to medium work, can do fine on only forage and perhaps some additional supplements. Feed companies often fortify these mixes and pellets with additional protein for horses needing it for muscle development, healing, or other reasons.

There are tailor made mixes and pellets available for broodmares, young horses, older horses, and high-level working horses that provide the extra elements that these individual populations need.

Balancer and Supplements

Some horses may need additional vitamins and minerals or oils and joint support that are not available in enough quantities in the concentrates. These can often be fed alongside some small forage like chaff if the horse does not require larger meals of concentrates.

Balancers and supplements are fed in small amounts, a bit like a human taking a vitamin pill. If taken in too high quantities they will just be wasted by excretion. It is important to consult a vet or nutritionist before using supplemental additions as the horse must have the right balance to gain the benefit and sometimes overuse can lead to dysfunction.

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Hydration

Water is essential for life and horses require it for both physiological functions and moving food safely through the gut. Dehydration can lead to impaction within the gut and cause colic.

A healthy horse can drink around 5 to 15 gallons (20 to 55 liters) of water every day and even more in hot weather or in heavy work. Always provide horses with access to clean water and in cold weather ensure that ice has not formed stopping them from drinking.

Bibliography:

www.bhs.org.uk. (n.d.). Feeding Horses: Horse Diet & Feed | The British Horse Society. [online] Available at: https://www.bhs.org.uk/horse-care-and-welfare/health-care-management/horse-health/feeding-horses/.

Geor, R.J., Harris, P.A. and Coenen, M. (2013). Equine applied and clinical nutrition : health, welfare and performance. Oxford: Saunders.

Frape, D. (2010). Equine nutrition and feeding. Uk: Wiley-Blackwell.

Melyni Worth (2010). The horse nutrition handbook : [feeding for maximum health, longevity, and performance; evaluating weight and well-beeing; designing a year-round feeding program; understanding proper supplement use and resolving nutritional disorders; managing pastureland for optimal health, safety, and feed value]. North Adams, Ma: Storey Publ.

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The Longissimus Dorsi Muscle in the Horse: Anatomy and Function

The longissimus dorsi is one of the most significant muscles in the equine musculoskeletal system. As part of the epaxial muscles, it plays a crucial role in movement, stability, and performance. Understanding its anatomy, function, and clinical relevance is essential for veterinarians, osteopaths, and equine body workers.

 

 

Location and Structure

The longissimus dorsi is the largest and longest muscle of the horse’s back. It runs along both sides of the vertebral column, It is not just found in the back. It actually begins in the neck at c4 and goes to the sacrum. It also has branches that extend all the way up to the head and back to the tail. The neck sections of the longissimus are called the longissimus cervicis muscle. The longissimus dorsi muscle is part of the longissimus system, which belongs to the erector spinae group and is divided into three sections: (1)

• Longissimus lumborum – located in the lumbar region.
• Longissimus thoracis – extending along the thoracic vertebrae.
• Longissimus cervicis – continuing into the cervical region towards the head.

 

Origin and Insertion

• Origin: Arises from the sacrum, ilium, lumbar vertebrae, and thoracic vertebrae.
• Insertion: Attaches to the transverse processes of the vertebrae, and ribs vertebrae. (2)

Function

The longissimus dorsi plays a vital role in spinal movement and support. Its functions include:

• Extension of the spine – dorsiflex
• Lateral flexion – bending the spine to one side.
• Stabilisation of the vertebral column – crucial for maintaining balance and posture.
• Transmission of force from the hindquarters – essential for locomotion, jumping, and collection in dressage movements.
• Absorption of mechanical power – acting eccentrically to control spinal motion during movement.

(3)

Nerve Supply

All sections of the longissimus are innervated by the dorsal rami of the spinal nerves. With the thoracic section innervated by the dorsal rami of the thoracic and lumbar spinal nerves. The capitis and cervicis sections are innervated by the dorsal rami of the cervical spinal nerves. (4)

These nerves emerge providing motor and sensory signals to the muscle.

Biomechanics and Movement

The biomechanics of the horse’s back depend on the interaction between the spinal column and the spinal musculature. (5) The longissimus dorsi muscle performs different functions along its length, contributing to the movement and stabilisation of different spinal segments. It plays an essential role in:

• Flexion-extension cycles – vital during locomotion.
• Load transmission between the limbs and spine – particularly in trotting and cantering.
• Back motion stability – ensuring controlled movement and force absorption.
  

  Clinical Relevance

  • Muscle tension and pain: Common in performance horses due to overuse, poor saddle fit, or incorrect training methods.
  • Weakness or atrophy: Can result from lack of use, neurological issues, or improper conditioning.
  • Osteopathic treatments: Techniques such as massage, stretching, and osteopathic adjustments can help maintain flexibility and function.
  • Diagnostic importance: Palpation, thermography, and ultrasound are useful tools for assessing muscle health and detecting injuries.

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  The longissimus dorsi is a key muscle in equine biomechanics, affecting movement, performance, and overall well-being. Understanding its anatomy, function, and common issues allows professionals to optimise horse care, prevent injuries, and improve equine athletic performance. Future research integrating 3D anatomical analysis and muscle activity measurements could further enhance our understanding of its function and clinical applications.

  References

  1. Journal of Applied Animal Science, 8(3), 9-26. Díaz Delgado, O. B., Louro, L. F., Rocchigiani, G., Verin, R., Humphreys, W., Senior, M., & Campagna, I. (2021). Ultrasound-guided erector spinae plane block in horses: A cadaver study. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia, 48(4), 577–584. Available at: ScienceDirect
  2. Grösel, M., Zsoldos, R. R., Kotschwar, A., Gfoehler, M., & Peham, C. (2010). A preliminary model study of the equine back including activity of longissimus dorsi muscle. Equine Veterinary Journal, 42(5), 444–450.

  beva.onlinelibrary.wiley.com

• Piermattei’s Atlas of Surgical Approaches to the Bones and Joints of the Dog and Cat (Fifth Edition), 2014, Longissimus Muscle. ScienceDirect
• Study.com. Longissimus Muscle – Function, Origin & Insertion
• Ritruechai, P. (2016). A Review on the Functions of the Horse Back and Longissimus Dorsi Muscle. Journal of Applied Animal Science, 8(3), 9-26.
• Spinal Biomechanics and Functional Anatomy by Jean-Marie Denoix (2019). Published in Veterinary Clinics: Equine Practice.
• Muscle Fibre Architecture of Thoracic and Lumbar Longissimus Dorsi Muscle in the Horse” by Dietrich et al. (2021). This study examines the intramuscular architecture of the longissimus dorsi, providing insights into its role in spinal stability and locomotion.

Biomechanics, Horses and Osteopathy

Biomechanics is the study of the mechanical principles that govern the movement and structure of living organisms. By examining how forces interact with the body, biomechanics bridges the gap between biological systems and physics, offering valuable insights into movement, posture, and overall functionality. Equine biomechanics focuses on understanding the horse’s musculoskeletal system, the dynamics of its motion, and the interaction between the horse and its environment.

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Applications of Biomechanics in Horses

The study of biomechanics in horses is essential for a wide range of practical applications, including:

Performance Optimisation

By analysing movement patterns, biomechanics can identify inefficiencies or asymmetries in a horse’s gait. This helps trainers, veterinarians, osteopaths, physiotherapists, and riders enhance performance, improve training techniques, and prevent injuries.

Injury Prevention and Rehabilitation

Understanding the forces at play in a horse’s body allows professionals to detect early signs of strain or dysfunction. Biomechanics informs rehabilitation programs by tailoring exercises to restore proper movement and load distribution.

Saddle Fit and Rider Influence

The way a saddle fits and how a rider interacts with a horse significantly impact the horse’s biomechanics. Poor saddle fit or riding technique can lead to discomfort, restricted movement, and long-term issues. Research into these interactions helps improve saddle design and rider training. (1)

Diagnosis of Lameness

Lameness evaluations often incorporate biomechanical analysis to pinpoint the root causes of irregular movement. Advanced technologies, such as gait analysis systems, provide detailed data to guide treatment.

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Clinical Applications in Veterinary Medicine

Veterinarians use biomechanical principles to:

• Diagnose lameness and movement disorders
• Plan surgical interventions
• Design therapeutic exercises
• Evaluate treatment effectiveness

How Equine Osteopathy Ties In

Equine osteopathy complements the study of biomechanics by focusing on restoring balance and function to the horse’s body. Osteopathy considers the whole horse – its muscles, joints, organs and connective tissues – and seeks to resolve restrictions that might interfere with optimal biomechanics.

Synergies Between Biomechanics and Osteopathy

• Holistic Assessment: While biomechanics identifies mechanical inefficiencies, osteopathy addresses the underlying causes, such as restrictions in the body.
• Injury Recovery: Both areas work hand-in-hand to rehabilitate horses, combining precise movement analysis with hands-on techniques to restore function.
• Enhanced Performance: By improving joint mobility and muscle balance, osteopathy supports the biomechanical goal of efficient and pain-free movement.
• Injury Prevention: Help prevent injuries through proper conditioning
• Training: Develop training programs that enhance natural movement

It is important for an equine osteopath to have a deep understanding of the biomechanics of the horse.

Why Biomechanics and Osteopathy Matter

For horse owners, trainers, and equine professionals, understanding biomechanics and integrating osteopathy into regular care schedules can significantly enhance a horse’s well-being. Together, they provide a comprehensive approach to maintaining health, optimising performance and ensuring the longevity of equine athletes and companions.

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Injury Prevention and Rehabilitation

Biomechanical and Osteopathic principles are essential in:

• Identifying movement patterns that may lead to injury
• Understanding how compensatory movements develop
• Developing effective rehabilitation protocols
• Assessing readiness to return to work after injury

The study of biomechanics offers invaluable insights into how horses move and function, while equine osteopathy provides the tools to address imbalances and restrictions. By integrating the two, equine professionals can ensure their horses are not only performing at their best but are also healthy, comfortable, and free from pain. (3)

Resources:

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1. Clayton, H. M., & Hobbs, S.-J. (2017). The role of biomechanical analysis of horse and rider in equitation science. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 190, 123–132. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S016815911730062X
2. StudySmarter. (n.d.). Veterinary biomechanics. StudySmarter. https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/medicine/veterinary-medicine/veterinary-biomechanics/
3. Haussler, K. K. (2009). Review of Manual Therapy Techniques in Equine Practice. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, 29(12), 849–869. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0737080609006753

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